Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor

and Terracotta Warriors

Peasants digged a well in 1974 ,which became the greatest archaeological find of the 20th century when they discovered fragments of a Terra Cotta Warrior. Excavation of the vault revealed thousands of warriors and their horses, an entire army designed follows its emperor into eternity.

The site is located 1.5 kilometers (1 mile) east of the Qin Mausoleum. The emperor's terra cotta army was found in three underground timber lined vaults. Pit 1 contained chariots and ranks of six thousand soldiers. Pit 2 held fourteen hundred figures of cavalrymen, horses and infantrymen, along with ninety wooden chariots. Pit 3 contained about seventy figures. Excavating them has been a massive undertaking. To date, more than a thousand warriors have been reassembled.

The Qin Terra Cotta Army Museum, a hangar-like building constructed over Pit 1, place of the original discovery in 1974 opened in 1979. Later in October 1994, Pit 2 opened to the public. Now the museum is a stunning display that every visitor to China should see.

Pit 1,discovered in May 1974, the largest of the three, is in the form of an earth and timber lined rectangle. It is 210 meters (230 yards) from east to west, 62 meters (68 yards) in width and covers a total area of 12,600 square meters (14,350 square yards). The depth fluctuates between 4.5 and 6.5 meters. Five entries were found on each side. Those on the eastern side are the main entrance. Eleven parallel passageways stretch through the vault from east to west. A section of 960 square meters has been fully excavated and marked out as the main attraction of the museum. A three-line vanguard of 204 tunic-infantrymen stands in the front. Immediately behind them are 36 rows of armed soldiers with war chariots at various intervals. A single column of soldiers face north and south flanking the main body of men, while a further column face west as the rear. The functions of the armed soldiers are recognizable by the weapons they carried which include spears, battle-axes, halberds and crossbows.

Visitors enter the pit through the eastern doors and walk towards the south. Track down the southern side of the pit and you can cross a walkway, which affords rear views of the excavated area. Continue down the northern side and you can view the other side of the display. The exit via a small door in the northwest corner leads on to Pit 3.

Typical figures include: An armor clad general, armored soldiers, tunic-infantrymen and war chariots.

In the first section, the easternmost position, a cache of archers lay in wait. One hundred and sixty heavily armed kneeling archers lined in four intervals are surrounded by one hundred and seventy two standing archers. The formation greatly enhances the defensive strength to the army.

The second square serves as the chariot base. Here, sixty-four war chariots were divided into eight groups. Each had a charioteer with a soldier on each flank. This formation, known as "light chariots," was an innovation on the original use of chariots, which had an additional squad of infantrymen. The new formation enabled the chariots to move faster.

Six chariots accompanied by cavalrymen were positioned in the northern most camp. This camp was divided into eight groups. The fourth section, located in the center, was for chariots, infantrymen and cavalrymen. Nineteen chariots were divided into three columns, six in the first and the third and seven in the second column. A figure of a general was found in one chariot and the rear guard of the formation comprised thirty-two infantrymen and eight cavalrymen. It is thought that the cavalrymen acted as messengers.
Pit 3 discovered just one month after Pit 2 lies 25 meters to the north of Pit 1. Measuring 28.8 meters (94.5 feet) from east to west, 24.6 meters (81 feet) from north to south, the pit covers an area of 50 square meters (60 square yards). This forms the headquarters of the garrison, exercising military control over men contained in the other two pits. Sixty-eight terra cotta figurines, four chariot horses and a wooden chariot were found here.

The layout is a concave covering about 520 square meters (624 square yards) A sloping entrance, 11.2 meters (37 feet) long, 3.7 meters (12 feet) wide leads into a chariot and horse stable with wings forming a room to each side. These contained sixty-four pottery figurines. Unlike the terra cotta figures unearthed in the other two pits, those in Pit 3 are stand along the walls seemly serving as a guard of honor. These men carried unique weapon called a "Shu". Sacrificial offerings unearthed indicate religious ritual and prayers for a victorious army.
 
Bronze chariots housed in the exhibition hall to the left-hand side of the hangar built over Pit One are two magnificent bronze chariots.

The No. 1 Chariot, presumably the leading chariot, measured 2.25 meters (7.38 feet) in length, 1 meter (3.27 feet) in height. This chariot often referred to as the "inspection carriage", ran before that of the emperor. The vanguard chariot drawn by four muscular horses, which wear gold girths and facial ornaments, has no compartment with an opening at the rear as an exit. The white-painted horses with tassels hanging down the necks have cropped manes and plaited tails. Their heads are held high and look forward; the horses seem ready to gallop. To accommodate the charioteer, the canopy is correspondingly much higher than that of the No. 2 Chariot.

No. 2 Chariot,the larger of the two chariots weighs 1,200 kilograms (2,646 pounds), 2.86 meters (9.38 feet) in length and 1.07 meters (3.51 feet) in height. The horses were finely decorated whose harness and reins are inlaid with gold and silver, and each horse wears a halter made of some 84 one-centimeter (0.4 inch) long tubes, fitted one onto another achieving a flexibility close to rope or leather. Called anche (safe chariot), the chariots is thought to serve as Qin Shi Huang's sleeping chariot. Rhombus-shaped lattice windows are set into all four sides of the carriage for ventilation. There is an umbrella like canopy, which extends over the driver to provide shade, roofed the chariot. This symbolizes the round sky and the square earth in line with the ancient Chinese belief about the shape of the universe.

All these dimensions suggest to the archaeologists that both the temperature control and the casting methods used were highly advanced. The charioteer sitting in front of the carriage is 51 centimeters tall clothed in a garment. His expression shows both the pride and nervousness due to the presence of the emperor. The interior ceiling was decorated with stylized clouds and from silk fragments discovered inside, it is assumed that cushions or quilts had once made the royal passenger comfortable.

Both the chariots were the limousines of that period and this oppugns the theory that bronze culture declined after the Shang dynasty - the golden age of bronze in China. The superb metallurgical and shaping technology of the Qin was discernible. The chariots were mostly bronze decorated with gold and silver mounts.

Investigations indicate that in total the emperor's chariot has 3,642 separate components of gold, silver or bronze. For making the components are used such technologies as casting welding, welding, hot muff coupling, buckle joining, inlaying, etc., thus providing the most precious information of the ancient chariot making. The assembly of the chariots required exquisite skill to apply various components properly to the principal part. It is considered to be a demanding job even today.

Military Formation of Terra Cotta Army
During the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 B.C.) and the period of the Warring States (475-221 B.C.), China was divided into six or seven states that often resorted to war with each other in their struggles for supremacy. Warfare was the predominant way of life. Many treaties have been written on warfare, such as Master Sun's Art of War, Master Wu's Art of War and Sun Bin's Art of War, each being in-depth studies of warfare which remain virtual Bibles of the battlefield even to this day. Discovery of Qin Shi Huang's terra cotta legions helped to resolve some rules in the tactic books, which has been hitherto unclear.

Sun Tzu and The Art of War
Sun Tzu, fl. 4th century BC, also spelled SUN-TZU or Sun Zi, reputed author of the Chinese classic Bing-fa (The Art of War), the earliest known treatise on war and military science.

The book is traditionally attributed to Sun Tzu (personal name Sun Wu), a military strategist and general who served the state of Wu near the end of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC). It is more likely, however, that it was written early in the Warring States period (475-221 BC).

The Art of War is a systematic guide to strategy and tactics for rulers and commanders. The book discusses various manoeuvres and the effect of terrain on the outcome of battles. It stresses the importance of accurate information about the enemy's forces, dispositions, deployments, and movements. This is summarized in the axiom "Know the enemy and know yourself, and you can fight a hundred battles with no danger of defeat." It also emphasizes the unpredictability of battle and the use of flexible strategies and tactics.

The Formation of Qin Terra Cotta Army
The pits provide an incredible amount of information of the army's forces, dispositions such as the distribution and formation of ranks, the use of weapons and the application of military tactics.

"The clever combatant looks to the effect of combined energy, and does not require too much from individuals. Hence his ability to pick out the right men and utilize their combined energy.

When he utilizes combined energy, his fighting men become like unto rolling logs or stones. For it is the nature of a log or stone to remain motionless on level ground, and to move when on a slope; if four-cornered, to come to a standstill, but if round-shaped, to go rolling down." - Sun Tzu

Victory or defeat on a battlefield depends on a well-organized military formation together with a well thought out strategy. Ancient military strategists advocated an agile vanguard preceding a formidable main echelon, which consists of chariots, infantrymen and cavalrymen. The formation was adaptable to changing conditions on the field.
The terra cotta warriors armed with different weapons played supportive roles in a variety of scenarios so that the combined strength of the army was brought into full play. The soldiers are divided into infantry armed with swords and spears, archers, crossbow archers, cavalry, chariot drivers and officers. Among the infantrymen there are some with armor and others without. Chariots are respectively designed for commanders, aide officers as well as for a squad of three or four soldiers. In the Art of War, it illustrates that more horses rather than chariots should be used when the battle is going to be a difficult one and vice versa. When the danger is at its greatest archers should be deployed.

Excavations indicate that the cavalry functioned as an independent force in battle, with chariots playing a vital strategic role. It oppugned the opinion that use of chariots in battle had ceased with the end of the Warring States Period. During the Battle of Changping between the Qin and Zhao states in 260 BC, this well-designed military disposition enabled the Qin defeat the enemy troops and thereby slaughtered 400,000 Zhao soldiers.

Extract from the Art of War
Military tactics are like unto water; for water in its natural course runs away from high places and hastens downwards.So in war, the way is to avoid what is strong and to strike at what is weak. Water shapes its course according to the nature of the ground over which it flows; the soldier works out his victory in relation to the foe that he is facing.Therefore, just as water retains no constant shape, so in warfare there are no constant conditions. He, who can modify his tactics in relation to his opponent and thereby succeed in winning, may be called a heaven-born captain.

The amazing bronze weapons reveal the dynamic metallurgical attainments of Qin. The weapons were cast and modeled to a standard shape and then were filed, chiseled, drilled and polished to have sharp blade, shiny luster and subtlety. A bronze sword unearthed had two symmetrical blades and from the handle to the end, gradually became narrower and thinner. It was technically highly advanced for that period.

Excavated materials also demonstrate that the production of alloys was highly scientific. The hardness and tenacity of the metals were determined by the proportion of the copper to tin in the alloys that were used to make a weapon. Copper was appropriately proportioned with 11 other elements such as nickel, magnesium, cobalt, and chrome. It coincides with an ancient book, which records the precise proportions of copper and tin for six kinds of bronze ware. For instance, an arrowhead contained a poisonous percentage of lead for greater killing power. It shows that during the Qin dynasty, people, through careful practice and detailed research, had established considerable scientific standards for metal production.

Otherwise, weapons were finely coated with a 10-micron layer of rustproof chromic salt oxide - which was not applied in Europe and America until contemporary times. Weapons usually feature a long shaft with the longest of 3.82 meters.
A typical weapon is called a "Pi" this is a double-bladed spear, which has the longest shaft. That and the halberd give rise to most visitors' interest. The head of "Pi" was quite similar to a sword. This gave rise to the misconception that "Pi" was a short sword. The shaft, which was longer than that of a spear, was tightly wound with thread, lacquered and decorated with red lines.

While with the fade of the war chariots, the "Shu" gradually play a role merely in art of attack and defense. Inscriptions recording the names of craftsmen have been founded on battle-axes and "Pi".

From rudiment to the masterwork

Materials:
An abundance of clay and especially large deposits of ochre-colored loess in Northern China, which the Chinese refer to as 'yellow earth' proved to be a suitable material due to its plasticity and adhesive quality. Clay of this type was produced in the area near Mount Lishan where the Qin Mausoleum was constructed. A group of kilns were established around the mausoleum in Shangjiao Village, Yuchi Village and Chengou Village.

Figure Creation:
The clay was firstly panned and crushed into a malleable form is suitable for molding. The mould was started from the bottom of the body. The feet of the warrior were formed on a square base, and legs were then added. When half-dry, clay was coiled into 3 to 5 cm ropes wound upwards to create the hollow upper body. This was carefully smoothed using a paddle on the exterior pressing against an anvil or block on the inside wall. Next, the half finished head and hands were pasted onto the body. The structure of the base prevented the figure from collapsing. Fashioning heads represented a complicated process. Facial features were achieved using a mould, with piling and sculpting to form the back. Ears were pasted to the heads prior to adding sculpted or molded hair buns.

Refinement:
A procedure was adopted to give individuality to each rough mould. The artisans smeared fine clay on the rough surface, then by pinching, pasting, cutting, and carving, facial details like eyes, hair, moustache, ears were elaborately represented. Excavations indicate that dozens of heads might be made from the same mould.

Skilful refinement produced the individual life like facial features and impressive stance, representative of the powerful Qin army. No two figures have an identical face; some appear solemn in deep thought while others are of a cheerful countenance. Archeological research confirms that these facial features are truly representative of the real men.

Firing:
Kilns built to fire the terra cotta figures were easily found around the site of the tomb. Firing within a kiln facilitated experimentation with different firing temperatures, raw materials, and types of decoration. The well formed nature of the earthenware would have been obtained by maintaining a temperature between 800 C and 900 C. Greater heat would have destroyed the even thickness while less will caused brittleness and breakage. The pure luster, high density and hardness of the figures are unique. Modern attempts have failed to create figures of similar quality.

Glazing and Coloring:
Gelatin or raw lacquer was applied thinly to the surface, then pink or similar color added to depict skin tones. Another layer of white paint applied to form a glaze. The black pupils in the yellowish brown irises of eyes give the statue a lifelike expression. Excavations indicate that various shades of red, pink, blue, even bright yellow were applied.

The same applies to the muscular horses, which stand with forelegs straight and hind legs slightly bent. The horses, with flaring nostrils, ears erect and eyes blazing seem ready to engage in a battle charge at a moment's notice.

Lifelike Terra Cotta Figures
The terra cotta soldiers are remarkably realistic sculptures. The figures are mostly 1.8 meters (5 feet 11 inches) in height, the lower part of the body being solid and the upper part hollow. Originally the figures were painted in bright colors however, over the two thousand years they have silently stood guard, the color has faded and worn off. The squarish faces of the warriors feature broad foreheads and wide, thick-lipped mouths. Their eyes focus on the far distance and some bear an ornate hairstyle. The muscular horses have big bright eyes, large nostrils, stout legs and plump waists and hips and are poised ready to gallop.

Tunic infantryman unearthed in Pit 1 wear a knee-length tunic, short trousers, puttees and curved shoes and would carried crossbows in their hands. Their hair is wound in topknots while some have beards. The clothes were designed to allow freedom of movement.

Armored soldiers unearthed in Pit 1, stand 189 cm in height and would each have had a sword in his left hand. They were heavily armored with a brown cape and a red cap and green shin guards.

War chariots A two wheeled chariot with a round canopy, 1.2 meters in length and 1.3 meters in width, is pulled by four pottery horses flanked by two spear men with a central charioteer. The horses measure 1.5 meters (4 feet 11 inches) in height and 2 meters (6 feet 7 inches) in length. The charioteer wears a long robe under armor that protects his chest, back and shoulders. His arm extends forward as if he is holding reins.

Most chariots found in Pit 1 are considered to have been command carts from which generals had commanded troops.

Armored general unearthed in the Pit 1, standing some 197 cm in height. Generals wore two layers of robes covered by colored plate armor. This armor consisted of three parts: the 96.5 cm long front section covered the chest and abdomen, the 61 cm long rear portion protected the back and the waist with a small cape fashioned from 160 copper plates. The edge was decorated with geometrical floral motif. A general stands upright with his hands seemly resting on the sword handle. He wore a brown cap and upward curving shoes. His fearless and intrepid expression reflects his authority and experience.

Saddled steed stands 172 cm in height and 203 cm in length with a halter. Red, blue or brown saddle sits atop a shabrack, secured to the horse back with a single girth.

Chariot horses unearthed in the Pit 1, Pit 2 and Pit 3, the chariot teams feature strong limbs, large heads, protruding noses, short necks and wide shoulders.

Kneeling archers unearthed in the Pit 2, kneel on their right knees and would have held a crossbow against the right hip to keep it steady prior to firing. There have been 160 archers unearthed in Pit 2.

The standing archers stand with the left foot forward, leg slightly bent and the right leg straight. Their left arm stretches to the front while the right arm is held back to the chest. This is a position from which they are primed for an assault on the enemy.

Cavalryman: Found in Pit 2, the figure, some 180 cm in height, wears a narrow-sleeved knee-length jerkin under body armor, narrow trousers, boots, and a round cap. He holds his horse's reins in his right hand and a crossbow in the left. These horsemen were thought to serve as messengers during a battle.